Chess Notation

A special notation has been adopted to make the study of games
and positions possible, and it is necessary for students of the
game to become thoroughly conversant with it. The original and
earliest notation is still in use in English, French, and Spanish
speaking countries. It is derived from the original position in
the game, in that the squares take the names of the pieces which
occupy them. Thus the corner squares are called R 1 (Rook's
square or Rook's first), and to distinguish them from one another
QR1 or KR 1 (Queen's or King's Rook's square). The squares
immediately in front are called QR2 or KR2. A distinction is made
between White and Black, and White's R 1 is Black's R 8, Black's
R 2 is White's R 7, White's K B 3 is Black's KB6, and so on. K
stands for King; Q for Queen; B for Bishop; Kt for Knight; R for
Rook; and P for Pawn. In describing a capture, only the capturing
and the captured pieces are mentioned, and not the squares.

When confusion is possible, it is customary to add whether King's
side or Queen's side pieces are concerned, e.g. KRx Q Kt. In
this notation it is necessary to bear in mind which Kt is the Q
Kt, which R is the KR. This becomes increasingly difficult as the
game goes on and pieces change their places. Many sets of
chessmen have one Rook and one Knight stamped with a special
sign, to show they are King's side pieces. This is not necessary
in the case of Bishops: a white KBis always on white squares, a
white QBon black squares.

Chess Calculations

Chess would be an easy game if all combinations could be tested
and probed exhaustively by the mathematical process just shown.
But we shall find that the complications met with are extremely
varied. To give the beginner an idea of this, I will mention a
few of the more frequent examples. It will be seen that the
calculation may be, and very frequently

---------------------------------------
8 | | | #R | | | #R | #K | |
|---------------------------------------|
7 | #P | | | | | #P | #P | #P |
|---------------------------------------|
6 | | #P | #B | ^R | |#Kt | | |
|---------------------------------------|
5 | | | #P | | | | | |
|---------------------------------------|
4 | | | | | ^P | | | |
|---------------------------------------|
3 | | ^B | ^P | | |^Kt | | |
|---------------------------------------|
2 | | ^P | | | | ^P | ^P | ^P |
|---------------------------------------|
1 | | | | | ^R | | ^K | |
---------------------------------------
A B C D E F G H

Diag. 6.

is, upset by one of the pieces involved being exchanged or
sacrificed. An example of this is found in Diagram 6; KtxP

---------------------------------------
8 | | | | | | | | |
|---------------------------------------|
7 | | | | | | | #P | #K |
|---------------------------------------|
6 | #B | #P | | | | | | #P |
|---------------------------------------|
5 | | | #P | ^P |#Kt | | | |
|---------------------------------------|
4 | | | ^P | | | | | |
|---------------------------------------|
3 | | | | |^Kt | | ^B | |
|---------------------------------------|
2 | ^P | | | | | | | ^P |
|---------------------------------------|
1 | ^K | | | | | | | |
---------------------------------------
A B C D E F G H

Diag. 7.

fails on account of R X B; this leaves the Knight unprotected,
and White wins two pieces for his Rook. Neither can the Bishop
capture on K5 because of R X Kt. leaving the Bishop unprotected,
after which BxKt does not retrieve the situation because the Rook
recaptures from B6.

Chess And Checkmate

If a player succeeds in reaching the eighth rank with one of his
pawns he is entitled to call for any piece of higher grade, with
the exception of the King, in place of such pawn.

Each move in a game of chess consists of the displacement of one
piece only, with the exception of what is termed "castling," in
which the King and either Rook can be moved simultaneously by
either player once in a game. In castling, the King moves
sideways to the next square but one, and the Rook to which the
King is moved is placed on the square which the King has skipped
over. Castling is only allowed if neither the King nor the Rook
concerned have moved before, and if there is no piece between the
Rook and King.

Diagram 3 shows a position in which White has castled on the
Queen's side, and Black on the King's side. Castling is not
permitted if the King in castling must pass over a square
attacked by a hostile piece. A square (or a piece) is said to be
"attacked" when the square (or the piece) is in the line of
action of a hostile unit. A square (or a piece) is said to be
covered or protected if an opposing piece occupying that square
(or capturing the piece) could itself be captured.

When attacking the King it is customary to call "check," to
notify the opponent of the fact; for the attack on the King

---------------------------------------
8 | | | | #R | | #R | #K | |
|---------------------------------------|
7 | #P | #P | | | | #P | #P | #P |
|---------------------------------------|
6 | | | #P | | #P | | | |
|---------------------------------------|
5 | | | | | | | | |
|---------------------------------------|
4 | | | | ^P | | | | |
|---------------------------------------|
3 | | | | | | | | |
|---------------------------------------|
2 | ^P | ^P | ^P | | | ^P | ^P | ^P |
|---------------------------------------|
1 | | | ^K | ^R | | | | ^R |
---------------------------------------
A B C D E F G H

Diag. 3.

must be met in some way or other. This can be done by capturing
the attacker or by interposing a piece (this is not possible in
case of attack by a Knight or a pawn), or lastly by moving the
King to a square which is not attacked. The latter must not be
done by castling. If it is impossible by any of the three methods
above mentioned to avoid the attack upon the King, the King is
said to be checkmated, and the game is ended.

Developing Skills in Chess

A few dozen such games are by no means wasted. After certain
particular dispositions of pieces have proved his undoing, the
beginner will develop the perception of threats. He sees dangers
one or two moves ahead, and thereby reaches the second stage in
his development.

His combinations will become more and more sound, he will learn
to value his forces more correctly, and therefore to husband his
pieces and even his pawns with greater care. In this second stage
his strength will increase steadily, but, and this is the
drawback, only as far as his power of combination is concerned.
Unless a player be exceptionally gifted, he will only learn after
years of practice, if at all, what may be termed "positional
play." For that, it is necessary to know how to open a game so as
to lay the foundation for a favourable middle game, and how to
treat a middle game, without losing sight of the possibilities of
the end-game. It is hopeless to try to memorise the various
openings which analysis have proved correct, for this empirical
method fails as soon as the opponent swerves from the recognised
lines of play. One must learn to recognise the characteristics of
sound play. They apply to all and any position, and the
underlying principles must be propounded in a manner generally
applicable. And this brings me to the substance of my subject,
round which I will endeavour to build up a system compatible with
common sense and logic.

Studying Strategies Of Chess

I have no doubt that any chess player who will take the trouble
to study strategies of chess will spend many a pleasurable hour.
Incidentally new vistas will be opened to him, and his playing
strength increased to a surprising degree.

The author says in his preface that he appeals to the
intelligence and not the memory of his readers. In my opinion,
too, the student should above all try to improve his judgment of
position.

Than the playing over of games contested by experts I can hardly
imagine a greater or purer form of enjoyment. Yet I must at the
outset sound a note of warning against its being done
superficially, and with a feverish expectation of something
happening. Every move or combination of moves should be carefully
weighed, and the student should draw his own conclusions and
compare them with what actually happens in the game under
examination.

This applies particularly to some of the critical positions set
out in diagrams in the course of the exposition of the several
games.

Chess Tips For Beginners

THE mental development of the chess player is a gradual struggle
from a state of chaos to a clear conception of the game. The
period required for such development largely depends upon the
special gifts the learner may possess, but in the main the
question of methods predominates. Most beginners do not trouble
very much about any particular plan in their study of chess, but
as soon as they have learnt the moves, rush into the turmoil of
practical play. It is self-evident that their prospects under
such conditions cannot be very bright. The play of a beginner is
planless, because he has too many plans, and the capacity for
subordinating all his combinations to one leading idea is non-
existent. Yet it cannot be denied upon investigation that a
certain kind of method is to be found in the play of all
beginners, and seems to come to them quite naturally. At first
the pawns are pushed forward frantically, because there is no
appreciation of the power and value of the pieces. Conscious of
the inferiority of the pawns, the beginner does not conclude that
it must be advantageous to employ the greater power of the
pieces, but is chiefly concerned with attacking the opposing
pieces with his pawns in the hope of capturing them. His aim is
not to develop his own forces, but to weaken those of his
opponent. His combinations are made in the hope that his
adversary may not see through them, nor does he trouble much
about his opponent's intentions. When most of his pawns are gone,
then only do his pieces get their chance. He has a great liking
for the Queen and the Knight, the former because of her
tremendous mobility, the latter on account of his peculiar step,
which seems particularly adapted to take the enemy by surprise.
When watching beginners you will frequently observe numberless
moves by a peripatetic Queen, reckless incursions by a Knight
into the enemy's camp, and when the other pieces join in the
fray, combination follows combination in bewildering sequence and
fantastic chaos. Captures of pieces are planned, mating nets are
woven, perhaps with two pieces, against a King's position, where
five pieces are available for defence. This unsteadiness in the
first childish stages of development makes it very difficult for
the beginner to get a general view of the board. Yet the
surprises which each move brings afford him great enjoyment.

A More Modern Chess Notation

A more modern notation is the algebraic notation, which has been
adopted in most countries. It has the advantage of being
unmistakably clear, and also more concise. Here the perpendicular
lines of squares (called files) are named with the letters a-h,
from left to right, always from the point of view of White, and
the horizontal lines of squares (called ranks) with numbers 1-8
as before, only with the distinction that the rank on which the
White pieces stand is always called the first; thus the square we
named White's QB2 or Black's QB7 is now called c2 in both cases.
Black's QB2 (White's QB7) is always c7. In capturing, the square
on which the capture takes place and not the piece captured is
noted, for the sake of uniformity. In the case of pawn moves, the
squares only are noted.

O--O stands for castles on the King's side; O--O--O stands for
castles on the Queen's side; : or x stands for captures; + for
check.

In the following opening moves, both notations are used for the
purpose of comparison:

1. P-Q 4 P-Q4 1. d4 d5
2. P-QB4 P-K3 2. c4 e6
3. Kt-QB3 P-QB4 3. Ktc3 c5
4. PxQP KPxP 4. cd: ed:
5. P-K4 QPxP 5. e4 de:
6. P-Q5 Kt-KB3 6. d5 Ktf6
7. B--KKt5 B-K2 7. Bg5 Be7
8. K Kt-K2 Castles 8. Ktge2 O--O

In most books in which the algebraic notation is used, both
squares of a move are written out for the benefit of the student.
The moves above would then look like this:

1. d2-d4 d7-d5
2. c2-c4 e7-e6
3. Ktb1-c3 c7-c5
4. C4 x d5 e6xd5
5. e2-e4 d5xe4
6. d4-d5 Ktg8-f6
7. Bc1-g5 Bf8-e 7
8. Ktg1-e2 O--O

To conclude: I will give the denomination of the pieces in
various languages:

English .............. K Q R B Kt P Castles
French .............. R D T F C P Roq
Spanish .............. R D T A C P Enrog
German and Austrian .. K D T L S O-O (O)
Italian .............. R D T A C O-O (O)
Russian .............. KP F L C K O-O (O)
Dutch ................ K D T L P O-O (O)
Scandinavian ......... K D T L S O-O (O)
Bohemian ............. K D V S J O-O (O)
Hungarian ............ K V B F H O-O (O)

More Sacrifice In Chess

But in such cases the sacrificing of material has its
compensation in some particular advantage of position. As
principles of position are difficult for beginners to grasp, I
propose to defer their consideration for the present and to
devote my attention first to such combinations as involve
questions of material. Let us master a simple device that makes
most combinations easy both for attack and defence. It amounts
merely to a matter of elementary arithmetic, and if the beginner
neglects it, he will soon be at a material disadvantage.

Diagram 4 may serve as an example:

---------------------------------------
8 | | | | | #R | | | #K |
|---------------------------------------|
7 | #P | #P | #Q | #Kt| #R | | #P | |
|---------------------------------------|
6 | | | #Kt| #B | #P | | | #P |
|---------------------------------------|
5 | | | | | | | | |
|---------------------------------------|
4 | | | | | | ^P | | |
|---------------------------------------|
3 | | ^P | | ^Kt| | ^Kt| | |
|---------------------------------------|
2 | ^P | ^B | | ^Q | ^R | | ^P | ^P |
|---------------------------------------|
1 | | | | | ^R | | ^K | |
---------------------------------------
A B C D E F G H

Diag. 4.

It is Black's move, and we will suppose he wishes to play P-K4. A
beginner will probably calculate thus: I push on my pawn, he
takes with his pawn, my Knight takes, so does his, then my Bishop
takes, and so on. This is quite wrong, and means waste of time
and energy.

When the beginner considers a third or fourth move in such a
combination, he will already have forgotten which pieces he
intended to play in the first moves. The calculation is perfectly
simple upon the following lines: I play P-K4, then my pawn is
attacked by a pawn and two Knights, a Bishop and two Rooks, six
times in all. It is supported by a Bishop, two Knights, two Rooks
and a Queen, six times in all. Therefore I can play P-K4,
provided the six units captured at K4 are not of greater value
than the six white units which are recaptured. In the present
instance both sides lose a pawn, two Knights, two Rooks, and a
Bishop, and there is no material loss. This established, he can
embark on the advance of the KP without any fear.

A Preface To Strategies Of Chess

THE large majority of chess players who would like to improve
their game, have not the necessary opportunity of pitting
themselves against players of master-strength, or at least of
obtaining the desired instruction from personal intercourse with
them. It is for such players that the present work is intended.
The books on which the learner has to rely hardly ever serve his
purpose, being mostly little more than a disjointed tabulation of
numberless opening variations, which cannot be understood without
preliminary studies, and consequently only make for confusion. In
the end the connection between the various lines of play may
become clear, after the student has made an exhaustive study of
the subject, but very few would have either the time or the
inclination for such prolonged labour.

Therefore another shorter and less empirical way must be found in
which to acquire the understanding of sound play. My system of
teaching differs from the usual ones, in that it sets down at the
outset definite elementary principles of chess strategy by which
any move can be gauged at its true value, thus enabling the
learner to form his own judgment as to the manoeuvres under
consideration. In my opinion it is absolutely ESSENTIAL to follow
such strategical principles, and I go so far as to assert that
such principles are in themselves SUFFICIENT for the development
and conduct of a correct game of chess.

The Middle Game Of Chess

Before I could proceed to the discussion of the middle game, I
found it necessary to treat of the principles governing the END-
GAME. For in most cases play in the middle game is influenced by
end-game considerations. Here also it has been my endeavour as
far as possible to reduce my subject to such principles as are
generally applicable.

Finally, as regards the MIDDLE GAME, to which the whole of Part
II is devoted, I have again made the handling of pawns, the
hardest of all problems of strategy, the starting-point for my
deliberations. I have shown at length how the various plans
initiated by the various openings should be developed further. To
ensure a thorough understanding of the middle game, I have given
a large number of games taken from master play, with numerous and
extensive notes. Thus the student has not to rely only on
examples taken haphazard from their context, but he will at the
same time see how middle-game positions, which give opportunities
for special forms of attack, are evolved from the opening.

It has been my desire to make the subject easily understandable
and at the same time entertaining, and to appeal less to the
memory of my readers than to their common sense and intelligence.
I hope in that way not to have strayed too far from the ideal I
had in mind when writing this book, namely, to apply to chess the
only method of teaching which has proved productive in all
branches of science and art, that is, the education of individual
thought.

If I have succeeded in this, I shall have the satisfaction of
having contributed a little to the furthering, in the wide
circles in which it is played, of the game which undoubtedly
makes the strongest appeal to the intellect.

A Checkmating Threat

A second important case, in which our simple calculation is of no
avail, occurs in a position where one of the defending pieces is
forced away by a threat, the evasion of which is more important
than the capture of the unit it defends. In Diagram 7, for
instance, Black may not play KtxP, because White, by playing P-
Q6, would force the Bishop to Kt4 or B1, to prevent the pawn from
Queening and the Knight would be lost. A further example of the
same type is given in Diagram 8. Here a peculiar mating threat,
which occurs not

---------------------------------------
8 | | | #B | | #Q | #R | | #K |
|---------------------------------------|
7 | | | | |#Kt | | #P | #P |
|---------------------------------------|
6 | #P |^Kt | | | | | | |
|---------------------------------------|
5 | | | ^R | |^Kt | | | |
|---------------------------------------|
4 | | | ^Q | | | | | |
|---------------------------------------|
3 | | | | | | | | |
|---------------------------------------|
2 | ^P | | | | | | ^P | ^P |
|---------------------------------------|
1 | | | | | | | ^K | |
---------------------------------------
A B C D E F G H

Diag. 8.

infrequently in practical play, keeps the Black Queen tied to her
KB2 and unavailable for the protection of the B at BI.

White wins as follows:

1. KtxB, KtxKt; 2. RxKt, QxR; 3. Kt-B7ch, K-Kt1; 4. Kt-R6 double
ch, K-R1; 5 Q-Kt8ch, RxQ; 6. Kt-B7 mate.